Hiv / Aids And Aids Essay - 791 Words

1.INTRODUCTION There is a global trend that HIV/AIDS has prevailed the globe. According to the UNAIDS, at the end of the year 2015 there were approximately 36.7 million people around the world infected with HIV/AIDS including the estimated 2.1 million individuals worldwide who were newly infected in that year. The World Health Organization (WHO) indicates that a limit of 54% of HIV/AIDS individuals know that they’re infected. It also indicates that two thirds of the reported case (approximately 25.6 million people) occupy the sub-Saharan Africa region. With respect to the HIV/AIDS related mortality, the WHO provides an estimation of 35 million AIDS-related deaths since the start of the epidemic (including 1.1 million in 2015). The UNAIDS indicates that only a fraction of 17 million people living with HIV/AIDS were accessing its antiretroviral therapy (ART) globally. This signifies that the majority of people living with HIV/AIDS still do not have access to the treatment, care, and transmission prevention of the disease, and this would go back to one of the two possible reasons: either their country doesn’t have these medical services available, or if it does, then they do not have enough money to access the treatment in it or abroad. Therefore, the statistics provided convey a relation between the epidemic and the societal and economic conditions of the patients’ countries. This socioeconomic relation appears in the form of many negative social andShow MoreRelatedHiv / Aids And Aids1472 Words   |  6 PagesHIV/AIDS is the major ongoing issue attacking sub-Saharan Africa. The damage caused by HIV/AIDS strips families, communities, and increases poverty. In Kenya, the plague has mainly targeted those in the fertile and reproductive age groups. According to estimates by the United Nations of AIDS (UNAIDS), â€Å"Indication of 22.5 million people were living with HIV in Africa, over 1.6 million people were estimated to have died from this sy ndrome, and well over 11 million children have been orphaned by AIDSRead MoreAids : Hiv / Aids Essay1330 Words   |  6 PagesLauren Kennedy United States HIV/AIDS Part 1: Background of Topic: What became later known as aids was detected in West Africa when scientists identified a species of chimpanzees that had a version of this virus in their immune system. They later found out that the disease was transmitted to humans and created into HIV when people hunted these animals for food and came in contact with their infected blood. Decade after decade this illness swooped over Africa like a blanket and began to spread toRead MoreHiv/Aids Essay1086 Words   |  5 PagesHIV/AIDS BSHS302 May 21, 2012 Faye Flanagan HIV/AIDS Social issues facing HIV/AIDS today are as diverse as the people that are affected by the disease. Advocating for a large group of people takes action at the macro human service practice. The goals and intervention strategies will be similar to micro human service and will involve the same strategies to bring justice to human rights for all members of society. One strategy is including a broader range of other diversity in research inRead MoreThe Epidemic Of Hiv And Aids1535 Words   |  7 Pagespopulation include providing access to health care, HIV testing and syringe services programs. The Office of HIV Planning in Philadelphia focuses on the needs of the population, conducts community outreaches and educational sessions. As previously stated, 32 state Medicaid programs reimburse for routine HIV screening of adults aged 15-65 years, regardless of risk. This policy allows for individuals to more likely participate in this screening process. HIV testing can be done through health care professionalsRead MoreThe Effects of Hiv/Aids2132 Words   |  9 Pages | QUESTION: Discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on education. CONTENTS 1.) Introduction. 2.) Discussion. i.)   loss of professionals to the effects of HIV and AIDS ii)   Funds channeled to combat effects of HIV and AIDS on education in Kenya iii) High dropout rates to the effects of HIV and AIDS on education iv) The introduction of HIV and AIDS as a unit on the Kenyan syllabus v)  Ã‚   Stigmatizations caused by the effects of HIV and AIDS on education in Kenya 3.) Conclusion Read MorePrevalence Of Hiv / Aids1525 Words   |  7 PagesPrevalence of HIV/AIDS in Ohio It was already stated that the HIV/AIDS epidemic impacts persons regardless of sex, age, race/ethnic group and/or geographic region in Ohio, but certain populations seem to be more impacted than others. There are 11, 544,225 people living in Ohio. 80% are white, 12% are black, 3% are Hispanic, and less than 2% are Asian. Each year in Ohio, about 1,000 people are diagnosed with HIV. In 2013, 1,180 people were diagnosed. Overall, there are almost 20,000 known to be livingRead MoreStigma of Hiv/Aids1812 Words   |  8 PagesStigma of HIV/AIDS It goes without saying that HIV and AIDS are as much about social phenomena as they are about biological and medical concerns. From the moment scientists identified HIV and AIDS, social responses of fear, denial, stigma, and discrimination have accompanied the epidemic. Discrimination has spread rapidly, fuelling anxiety and prejudice against the groups most commonly affected, as well as those living with HIV or AIDS. One of the main reasons for this is the lack of educationRead MoreHiv/Aids in Nigeria6960 Words   |  28 PagesLITERATURE 2.0 INTRODUCTION HIV/AIDs has been ranked among the common disease of all times that is threatening us with the extinction of youths and adults. It is not only terrorizing the entire generation but also kills and leaves millions of orphans for the oldest grandparent to carter for. 2.1 HIV/AIDS IN NIGERIA According to USAID brief (2004), Nigerian epidemic is characterized by one of the most rapidly increasing rates of new HIV/AIDS cases in West Africa. Adult HIV prevalence increased fromRead More AIDS/HIV Essay2283 Words   |  10 PagesHuman Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), can be transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing contaminated needles and syringes, mother to child (perinatal) and contaminated blood product (National Association of Health Authorities, 1988). 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH Late HIV diagnosis remains a major problem among black Africans in England. In 2007, about 42 per cent of black Africans diagnosed with HIV were diagnosed late (HPA, 2008a). This compromises their survival chances becauseRead MoreAids : Hiv And The Pursuit Of Happiness1366 Words   |  6 PagesThe AIDS epidemic has been a controversial debate for many years. As Sturken says in her text, there is discourse on AIDS of hysteria and blame, but AIDS also produces a discourse of defiance and criticism (Sturken 147). Using Sturken’s article AIDS and The Politics of Representation and the film Living Proof: HIV and the Pursuit of Happiness I will discuss the two different discourses and views of AIDS. These simultaneous discourses on AIDS, result from the variation of ways people in our society

The History Of Gun Control - 1605 Words

â€Å"In 1939, Germany established gun control. From 1939 to 1945, six million Jews and seven million others unable to defend themselves were exterminated.† Joe Wurzelbacher. The history of gun control legislation started in the 1920s-1930, which made it so that the states and congress could make laws on guns, before this congress had no say on guns and this made it possible for them to create laws. The National Firearm Act of 1934 made it so that owners must register any sawed-off shotguns with the Treasury department and it also levied a $200 tax on the manufacturing or sale of machine guns. Then, just four years later they passed the National Firearms Act of 1938 requiring interstate gun dealers to be licensed and to record sales; this†¦show more content†¦First, criminals will find access to guns no matter what laws are in place. A national survey of inmates of state prisons found that just 10 percent of youthful (age 18-40) male respondents who admitted to having a gun at the time of their arrest had obtained it from a gun store. The other 90 percent obtained guns through different methods such as through gang members and buying them off the black market. A gun will usually start off with a legal transaction, then throughout the years they get passed on, and sometimes ends up in the hands of a criminal, most of the guns used in Chicago gangs are 11 years old or older from being passed on from gang member to gang member or civilians passing the gun on (Cook). Most criminals are afraid to try and go and buy a gun legally because they most likely would not pass the background check and secondly they know how easily a gun could be traced back to them if they ever did commit a crime with that specific gun. Furthermore, criminals who may have committed a crime with a weapon do not actually need to obtain licenses or register their weapons, as this would be an act of self-incrimination, a ruling upheld in 1968 in the case of Haynes vs. the US (Ill egal Guns Statistics Overview). While many criminals are adults, if we look at the juvenile statistics for illegal guns we can see that the problem doesn’t just lie in the hands ofShow MoreRelatedHistory Behind The Gun Control2680 Words   |  11 PagesHistory Behind The Guns, What Has Caused Gun Control Gun control in America dates all the way back to 1791, the year that the countries Bill of Rights was signed and put into place.(â€Å"Gun Control And Gun Rights†, 2015) This bill was put into place for numerous reasons, but mainly it was to better and help insure the people’s rights. One of the rights in this bill is the right to bear arms or the second amendment to the Constitution. This Right has been a challenging one as of late. The control ofRead MoreHistory of Gun Control in America1893 Words   |  8 Pagesdifficult to be a straight shooter. Among all of them, however, debate over gun control has been prevalent for so long, it is something many people can easily set their sights on. It is an issue everybody should have an opinion on, as it is vastly important, potentially threatening, and all too present in modern society. Many find the mere concept of gun control invasive to their constitutional rights, while others see lack of gun control to be astoundingly dangerous and entirely chimerical. Protection ofRead MoreGuns And Gun Control : A Big Part Of American History1773 Words   |  8 PagesSomewhere around the world somebody just got shot. Somewhere else somebody just got stabbed to death. Some people would have been affected more by the death by gun because a decent amount around the world dump a lot of hatred towards guns and gun owners. It seems that guns have always received the most attention and concern from citizens, for years. They have been either hated or loved by the citizens of the United States since before the colonial days. They are not a bad mechanism for people toRead MoreEssay The History of Gun Control in the United States885 Words   |  4 Pagesarms shall not be infringed.† A gun license grants a user the right to own and use a firearm. Gun-right supporters strongly oppose federally mandated licensing or registration. They see both as dangerous steps toward revoking Second Amendment rights. They say that with mandated licensing or registration, a right guaranteed by the Constitution becomes a privilege granted by the government (Doeden). The topic of gun control/rights in the United States has a long history, which some see as unconstitutionalRead MoreDo People kill People, or do Guns Kill People1705 Words   |  7 Pagesdebate on the topic of gun control. History has shown that there are positive and negative effects of gun control laws and high profile events that have lead to a highly controversial debate. Around 1788, James Madison stated that the Second Amendment was written to assure the southern states that Congress would not â€Å"undermine the slave system by disarming the militia, which were then the principal instruments of slave control throughout the South† (Bogus 1). Gun control laws, which are laws thatRead MoreLimiting Our Protection : The Rights Of A Free State, The Right Of The People1135 Words   |  5 PagesTurkey established gun control. From 1915 to 1917, 1.5 million Armenians, unable to defend themselves, were rounded up and exterminated.(A Little Gun History) There are more statistics that prove that limiting your right to bear arms and gun control is ineffective. The right to bear arms shouldn’t be limited because, guns don’t kill people, people kill people, no studies have shown to prove that gun ownership increases risk of suicide, and in many crimes involving firearms the gun is not legally ownedRead MoreIs Gun Ownership a Right?1214 Words   |  5 Pagespeople kill people, or do guns kill people? According to the U.S. Constitution, the Second Amendment states that the right to bear arms should not altered.(Bill of Rights). Many American citizens believe this amendment is an individual right, while others believe that it is only a collective right intended to restrict Congress from taking away a states right to self-defense. This, along with other current events, has given rise to heated debate on the topic of gun control. History has shown that thereRead MoreEssay about Gun Control Will Not Reduce Crime1076 Words   |  5 Pagesimplementation of gun control in the United states is a large problem as it will take away the 2nd Amendment rights and would also stop the ability of law abiding citizens to protect themselves from criminals who obtain guns illegally. The right to bear arms is promised to citizens of the United States, and to put gun control into effect is to take away their Constitutional rights. Crime i s very high in cities that have few gun control laws. However, the problem will not be solved by taking guns away fromRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1420 Words   |  6 Pagesresult of gun violence. Millions more have been the victim of assaults, robberies, and other crimes involving a gun† (â€Å"FACT SHEET: New Executive Actions to Reduce Gun Violence and Make Our Communities Safer†). Gun Control is one of the main political issues that has been debated for years now; Guns have led to the mass increase of fatalities and deaths in the U.S. today, being a controversial issue for the past decade. From assassinations, to mass shootings, and homicides, every time guns and violenceRead MoreBennett Dorton. English 11. 1-26-17.Gun Control In America.1270 Words   |  6 PagesBennett Dorton English 11 1-26-17 Gun Control In America Every time a gun injures or kills in self defense it is used seven times in a criminal assault or homicide; furthermore the main argument against stricter gun laws is the fact that they are needed for self defense. Gun control is a very controversial and debatable topic, and many people have different opinions. In the Constitution, The Second Amendment gives the right to bear arms, but there have been restrictions

Political Participation and Representation of Women in Indian Politics free essay sample

Women’s participation in mainstream political activity has important implications for the broader arena of governance in any country. Governance relates to a set of rules, institutions, and values that are involved in the management of state and society. Governance institutions and processes include political parties, parliaments, government and their interactions with society. Although governance is a generic term which could mean good government or management, the governance values, types of government, the nature of political processes, the political parties and organizations, which/whose interests are represented and protected, and the extent of power that the masses have to challenge the state or in suggesting alternatives in methods of governance etc. may vary in different political systems. Liberal democracy is founded on reason, law, and freedom of choice but the position of different social groups in the social and political space where power is located is not always equal in practice. This is particularly so in the case of women. The nature of society or state has a decisive impact on the extent and effectiveness of women’s political presence and participation. Notions of democracy, governance and the state are often not gender neutral constructs but result from both historical factors and experiences. The state and its organizational entities reflect the same social forces as other social organizations. It is thus necessary to examine the gender balance in women’s participation in the political process, decision making and policy formulation. The limited nature of female participation and representation in national decision making institutions has important consequences for women and for the legitimacy of the institutions. Where women constitute half the population in a political system which supports equality and where both women and men are legally eligible for political office, women’s participation should be equal to that of men. If this is not the case, it signifies deep flaws within the political system. Representation is not only a means of ensuring individual participation. It is also the responsibility of the representatives to act on behalf of the constituents, including women, who elected them and reflect their ideas and aspirations. Women’s disproportionate absence from the political process would mean that the concerns of half the population cannot be sufficiently attended to or acted ? Rtd Principal, Daulat Ram College for Women, University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 2 Human Rights, Gender Environment pon as it denies their viewpoints sufficient opportunity to be integrated in the political system. While the Indian democratic state is committed to the protection of individual rights within the context of citizenship, a closer look at how it operates for the women reveals that these rights are not accessible in the public and private spheres in their full potential to all the women in India. There are historical, social and cultural factors that have limited women’s capacity and chances to e xercise their freedom to participate in the political processes. The evolution of Indian democracy through the 14 general elections so far has reflected a low representation of women in Parliament, State legislatures, in political parties and other decision-making bodies. The under representation of women in the political sphere is inextricably linked with the low and inferior status of women in society in India especially in the context of the declining sex ratio (Table 1), increasing violence and crimes against women and their marginalized status in employment, education and health sectors. (Human Development in South Asia:2000). The comparative position of gender-related development index (GDI) reveals that among 177 countries, India ranks 113th, indicating its very low gender-equity status as evident from the Table below: Table : Comparative Position of Gender-related Development Index of Selected Countries Adult literacy rate (%age 15 above) 2004 g enrolment ratio for primary, secondary tertiary. Although the gap between male and female literacy rates has been narrowing, there is still very large disparity in this regard. While male literacy rate in India is 75. 3 per cent, female literacy rate is only 53. 7 per cent. It is even worse among Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). Among, the SC 50 per cent males are literate, while only 24 per cent females can read and write and among ST, 41 per cent males and only 18 per cent females are literate. An average Indian woman has little control over her own fertility and reproductive health. More women are illiterates compared to men and more women drop out of school. There are fewer women in the paid workforce than men. Women’s work is undervalued and unrecognized. Women work longer hours than men and carry the major share of household and community work which is unpaid and invisible. Women and men earn unequal wages. Women are legally discriminated against in land and property rights. Women face violence inside and outside the family throughout their lives. Most women in India have very little say in decisions affecting their own lives. The cumulative effect of all this is that women tend to lack the self-confidence and skills needed to function effectively in the public sphere. (Sen, Kalyani Menon . Shiva Kumar A. K: 2001). The under representation of women and absence of women from positions of power and decision-making reinforces their exploitation and deprivation. It is in this context that women’s greater political representation becomes all the more necessary. Political Participation and Representation of women in India Women in India raised the issue of representation in politics first in 1917. At that time it was basically a demand for universal adult franchise and political participation. By 1930 women had gained the Right to vote, which initially benefited women from elite families. Women’s involvement in struggles for political and civil rights in India were however sought to be linked to nationalist movements in alliance with males against the common foreign enemy. In any case women’s involvement in nationalist struggles changed their lives in that even though they were denied equal opportunities to shape the new state, they gained constitutional and legal rights. But even after the right to vote became a reality for all women, their representation in the parliament, political parties and other decision making bodies remained low even after independence, and after the Indian Constitution came into force in 1950. (Susheela Kaushik:1993:1996,Veena Mazumdar:1993). A few women no doubt attained University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 4 Human Rights, Gender Environment positions as members of parliament and state legislatures and as leaders of opposition, etc. mostly through family dynasties or through male political patronage. However, the percentage of women in legislatures and decision making positions always remained low. Women do not share the power of decision- making and are not involved in policy making in Indian democracy in proportion to their numerical strength. Thus there is a gap between the formal idea of women’s participation and their meaningful use of power. (Susheela Kaushik:1993). The quest for greater political representation of women is, therefore, still relevant. (Asha Kapur Mehta et al:2001) Women in India have lesser opportunities of public influence or for entering politics. Women also lack opportunities to move within the hierarchies without patronage of male leaders or mentors. The women’s wings of political parties may have given visibility to women in the form of a platform for participation rather than integrating them into central power structures. Women do not have necessary resources to enter and compete in contemporary political arena. Thus improved social indicators in development graphs may not automatically ease women’s access to political power or improve political participation and representation. They do not necessarily translate into collective gains nor sustained political power. Of course the scope for women’s public activism varies across class, caste and region in India. The effectiveness of women’s participation also depends on the local configuration of power and cultural environment apart from problems of poverty, illiteracy, lack of economic resources, negative social and legal environments, family and household pressures, male dominated bureaucracy and politicians that the women face. The case for women’s wider participation and representation Women in India constitute nearly half the population of the country (Table 1), but they are poorly represented in the various governance and decision making bodies. The position depicted through the 14 general elections so far reflects a low representation of women in Parliament, State legislatures, in political parties and other decision-making bodies. Less than 8% of Parliamentary seats, less than 6% Cabinet positions, less than 4% of seats in High Courts and the Supreme Court, have been occupied by women. Less than 3% of the administrators and managers are women. The average percentage of women’s representation in the Parliament, Assemblies and Council of Ministers taken together has been around 10%. UNIFEM:2000). The Indian Constitution guarantees to all women the fundamental right to equality (Article 14) and equal voting rights and political participation to both men and women. As reflected in the Preamble, the Indian Constitution is firmly grounded in the principles of liberty, fraternity, equality and justice and contains a number of provisions for the empowerment of women. Women’s right to equality and nondiscrimination are defined as justiciable fundamental rights (Article 15) and there University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 5 Human Rights, Gender Environment is enough room for affirmative action programmes for women. Equality of opportunity in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State is a fundamental right (Article 16). The Directive Principles of State Policy stress on the right to an adequate means of livelihood for both men and women equally (Article 39a), equal pay for equal work for both men and women (Article 39d), provision for just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief (Article 39e). Directives for promoting harmony and renouncing practices derogatory to the dignity of women are also provided for in the Indian Constitution. The political rights of women are recognized without any discrimination, or distinction and they have the right to participate in decision making at all levels equally with men. The right to constitutional equality has been supplemented by legal equality by the passage of a number of Acts through which the traditional inequalities in respect of marriage, divorce and property rights are sought to be eliminated. However, in spite of these constitutional and legal provisions, the ground reality is that women have not obtained adequate and proportionate representation in the legislative and other decision-making bodies. There is certainly a need for women’s more effective role in decision-making processes for the democratic and constitutional assurances of equal citizenship and rights in the Indian Constitution to become a reality at the operational level. Citizenship is linked to political participation and representation. Lack of ability and opportunity to participate in the political system implies a lack of full membership in the system. For true equality to become a reality for women, the sharing of power on equal terms with men is essential. But the reality is that women continue to be marginally represented even in areas where the various policies have a direct impact on them. There is still a great gap between constitutional guarantees and the actual representation of women in the political system in India Political Mobilization and Participation Historically many women have been active in the informal political sphere in terms of political mobilization and they have participated in large numbers in political demonstrations and mass agitations as well as in the activities of nationalist and political bodies and organizations. The political mobilization and participation of women has been impressive in the Indian National Movement, in revolutionary Left movements, anti-price rise stirs, on legislation on rape, against the practice of widow immolation, in the anti-liquor movements and movements against deforestation etc. During the National Movement against colonialism women were mobilized actively particularly under Gandhi’s leadership and women’s organizations within the political parties participated actively in the cause against colonialism for instance in the Civil Disobedience Movements and Salt Satyagraha etc. But once freedom was won, the women’s wings were more or less marginalized and assigned areas that primarily dealt with women and children or other ‘welfare’ activities and women’s organizations ended up playing University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 6 Human Rights, Gender Environment a secondary and supportive role to the male leadership in power. The leaders of such organizations were seldom women with independent political careers unless they were from political families with the backing of male political activists. It is worth noting that the political mobilization of women and their participation in elections has steadily increased since the first General Elections of 1952. (Table 2, 3, 4 5). Between 1952 –1980 for instance, women’s participation increased by 12% against the turnout of men which increased by only 6%. In the general elections of 2004, the all India percentage of women voter turnout was 48%. As regards women voters’ turnout, from 37. 1 per cent in the first general elections in 1952 it increased gradually over the years to 55. 6 by 1999. Notably, the gap between female and male voters was 15. 9 per cent in 1952, but it decreased slowly over successive elections and came down to 8. 4 per cent in 1996 (Table 3). It has remained at 8. 3 per cent in 2004 general elections. (Deshpande: 2004) This percentage increase in the turnout of women in elections has however not ranslated into a larger number of women being represented in the legislative bodies. Competitive elections and democracy has not necessarily led to better political representation of women in Indian politics. The candidates fielded by the various political parties are still predominantly male and women account for only five to ten percent of all candidates across parties and regions. As reflected in Table 6, the percentage of representation of women in the Lok Sabha varies from 4. 4 in 1952 to 8. 1 in 1984, declining to 5. 2 in 1989, rising to 7. 9 in 1998 and 9. 2 in 1999 and again declining to 8. 1 in 2004. In Rajya Sabha, proportion of female members started with 7. 3 per cent in 1952 and rose to 15. 5 per cent in 1991, but again declined to 6 per cent in 1998 and rose to 10. 3 per cent in 2005, again slightly declining to 9. 9 per cent in 2006. (Table 7). On the whole the representation of women in Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) and the State Assemblies remains low. (Tables 8, 9 10). Thus despite the increase in electoral participation of women, their representation in the formal political structures has not changed much. Table 11) Though voting is an important indicator of political participation and mobilization, it is not necessarily indicative of representation. Voting is a tool of political equality and it mobilizes women but voting by itself do es not result in the desired end of equality. Almost all parties vie with each other in appealing to women’s votes at the time of elections but very few women get to contest in the elections. Almost all parties hesitate to field women candidates. Hence the number of women candidates fielded by various political parties has always been very low as compared to their numbers in the population. Table 12) Though a large number of women participate in voting, their low numbers in decision making bodies including those of political parties in India is notable. (Table 14) Among women who manage to rise in the political echelons, in spite of their ability in administration and the art of political articulation, very few women reach the level of cabinet ministers. Mostly they remain deputy ministers or ministers of state. When women reach the few ministerial positions, they are generally assigned University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course Human Rights, Gender Environment portfolios in the social service sectors of Health, Education, Social Welfare, Women and Child Development etc. (Human Development in South Asia:2000) Representation By the 1980s, issues raised by the women’s movements in India led to political parti es realizing the importance of female voters and women’s wings became active. Mainstream political parties became conscious of women as a constituency and this was reflected in their election manifestoes and their considering women as candidates with potential votes. By the ninth Lok Sabha elections in 1989, one could find a conscious focus on women’s issues in the manifestoes of political parties. However, this did not translate into more seats for women in the political bodies and most parties resorted to tokenism and symbolism when it came to representation of women. Women issues were not taken up by parties in a serious manner nor translated into programmes, policies and legislation nor were they mandated specifically to address issues of women. Almost all political parties set up a women’s cell or wing but they worked as ancillary bodies. Very few women were able to capture seats of power. The number of women in the legislatures remained very small. Very few women reached the position of party president or leader of legislative party. (Ranjana Kumari:1994). More recently major political parties have indeed made a conscious effort to induct more women into the various levels of the party organization. The CPM has made an effort to induct more women into its district committees and state level bodies. The membership of women in the party however remains below 10%. But the membership of women in mass organizations as the Kisan Sabha and the CITU has shown an improvement. The CPM changed its stance on gender-based reservation only after 1988. The BJP had the highest percentage of women in decision-making bodies from the Parliamentary Board and the Election Committee down to the ward level. (Rita Manchanda:1998). Traditionally, the Congress Party has fielded the largest number of women candidates and has had the largest number of women members in Parliament though the Congress working Committee has a rather low level of representation of women. In spite of the efforts of political parties to induct more women, the extent of representation of women has not changed much. The number of women candidates in the 1998 parliamentary elections was not even half the number of women in the 1996 elections. In 1998 there were only 274 women candidates as against 599 in the 1996 elections. In the general elections in 1999, the same proportion of women were put up for elections by both the parties favoring the 84th Amendment Bill on the reservation for women in Parliament and the parties which were opposed to it. (Rita Manchanda:1998). The Congress Party led by a woman had only 10% of women among the candidates. The BJP and the CPM had 7% of women among the candidates. Jayati Ghosh:1999). The idea of 33% reservation for women in parliament was actively endorsed by most of the major University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 8 Human Rights, Gender Environment political parties and this had raised expectation that many more women would be nominated to contest the elections. The election manifestoes and the public pronouncements of parties as well as the print and electronic media highlighted the idea of women’s representation by reservation or by nomination of more women for elections signifying a more conscious political stand on women’s representation. However, these stances did not translate actually into more nomination of women candidates during elections. Many parties ended up allotting some seats to women candidates only as a token and to symbolize their pro women egalitarian policy. (Table 12) In the inner party structures in the decision-making levels and the posts within the party, women are even less represented in most political parties. Women have a very low representation if at all in the actual decision-making bodies and rarely influence the more significant party policies (Table 14). Most often they are relegated to the ‘women’s wing’ of the party where they are required to deal with what are considered to be â€Å"women’s issues’ such as dowry and rape cases and sometimes on more general concerns like price rise which are considered to affect ‘housewives’. Issues like child and family welfare are largely seen as women issues, and falling in a realm which is not political. By and large a masculine view of political priorities is in operation. Most of the women’s wings of political parties have very little power and have hardly any say in the decision making and important policy matters. Political parties assert that it is difficult to get sufficiently qualified women candidates. Other arguments have also been advanced. It has been held that women are not independent voters; a majority of them are illiterate; a majority of them make their choice on the basis of suggestions from male members of their families-husbands or sons; women lack information and political awareness or that women are not politically conscious. On the other hand, in reality women have been active and vocal both in times of peace and crisis. They have been active in movements of peace, women and child welfare, trade unionism, food adulteration, price rise and deforestation and many other issues. Power rather than Representation The real reason for the low political representation of women in the formal political structures and decision making levels, seems to lie in the compulsions of competitive elections and the quest for power by the political parties in a multiparty democracy. Increasingly the compulsions of the political parties due to narrow majorities, precarious coalitions and hung parliaments have made the question of power rather than that of representation the determining factor. Women’s issues and women’s participation and representation are encouraged only within the parameters of power and are constrained by the basic objectives and interest of the parties either to capture power or survival, if in power. While women are mobilized to vote by all the parties, at the stage of distributing tickets University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 9 Human Rights, Gender Environment for standing for elections, the number of women drops dramatically. At this stage, political parties are driven more by power considerations with an eye on the ‘winnability’ of the candidates from the angle of the prospect of government formation. Women lose out at this stage as the imperative of ‘winnability’ seems to compel political parties to deny tickets to women unless they are sure to win. Women are considered to have less chances of winning, which is not necessarily true. In the 1996 elections, Uttar Pradesh had the largest number of women candidates contesting the elections: 55 for 85 seats. In Rajasthan 17 women contested in 25 constituencies. Orissa had 10 for 21 constituences and in West Bengal, 21 women contested in 42 constituencies. However Kerala with better social indicators including female literacy had only 4 women contesting. A total of 599 women contested the elections. With all this women constituted only 3. 4% of the total number of contestants. In 1998 there were only 274 women candidates out of a total of 4750 candidates contesting the elections. In 1999, out of 284 women who contested, 49 won, the success rate being 17. 3% and for men it was 11. 3 %. Women therefore had a better percentage of winning. In the General Elections of 2004, out of 355 women who contested from the main Political Parties, 44 won, the success rate being 12. 4 % whereas men’s success rate was 9. 8 %. (Table 5). It is interesting to note that though the number of women representatives in Parliament has not been very impressive their success rate in terms of percentage of contestants getting elected had always been igher than that of the male contestants. Women of Power and Women in power in Indian Politics In spite of the low political representation of women in Indian politics, it must be noted that some women leaders have an important place in Indian politics today. Jayalalithaa as leader of AIADMK, Mamata Bannerji as leader of Trinamul Congress and Mayawati as leader of Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) are instances in point. Some of them head impor tant and strong regional political parties which have been in alliance with major national political parties both outside and in national government. Even though the rise of some of these women leaders might be linked to their proximity to male leaders, they now hold a position of leadership within the party in their own right who can influence the decisions of their own party as well as the course of national politics. In addition, the example of Indira Gandhi who rose to be Prime Minister of India, and later of Sonia Gandhi, leader of the Congress Party, both of whom had the dynastic advantage underpinning their leadership and position of power and decision-making in the Congress Party and the government can hardly be ignored. But the positions of authority of these women leaders did not include any specific mandate to address only women issues. In this sense as leaders of political parties, they were as power driven as their male peers. Political leadership by women is not University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 10 Human Rights, Gender Environment dramatically different from that of men. Women leaders are no better or worse than men. Nor have women leaders been typically anxious to give greater representation to other women within their own organizations or in the political process generally. Representation of women has not necessarily increased greatly under the leadership of women. In fact interestingly the 73rd Constitutional amendment and the policy and implementation of 33% reservation for women in Panchayats received strong support and impetus due to Rajiv Gandhi’s interest and advocacy in the matter. Thus the Indian political system cannot be said to be non-receptive to the emergence and dominance of women leaders even though the political representation of women has not particularly registered a significant increase over the last 14 general elections. While on the one hand most women politicians have found it difficult to rise within male dominated party hierarchies, on the other hand some women have managed to become leaders when they have set up parties of their own. Once they have established themselves as leaders, there has been an unquestioning acceptance of their leadership and decisions by the party rank and file, even if it is largely male. Women in parliament or legislatures do not necessarily confine themselves to women issues only. In the absence of a specific mandate for representing women issues, most of them feel that they represent both men and women of their constituencies. Like men they are drawn into the game of power with all its ruthlessness even though women’s approach to politics may not be identical to that of men. In fact even the women’s wings or organizations of parties are not necessarily marked by kind of feminist perspective or sensitivity. Also, the patriarchal articulations whether by male politicians and leaders or internalized by women candidates in presenting themselves as ‘bahus’ and ‘betis’ relying on traditional patriarchal notions of femininity are not absent in Indian politics. Many times women public figures do adapt to and adopt male priorities predominating in public life in order to be acceptable. Many women internalize the norms and roles of patriarchal political structures and merely replicate them instead of questioning them, resulting in reinforcing existing hierarchies of power. Questions have been raised as to whether an increase in numerical strength of women in the political process and decision making bodies automatically leads to a qualitative shift in power and whether women on balance pay greater attention to the concerns of women more than male politicians. Problems of tokenism, visibility, marginality etc. are often discussed in referring to women as a ‘minority’ operating in a male domain. Women’s rights and responsibilities to participate equally in political life should not however be treated as a ‘minority’ issue. The political space must belong to all citizens – women and men. There is no doubt that fewer the women in public life the lesser the likelihood of distinctively female values, priorities and characteristics finding expression. Hence women’s involvement in political University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 11 Human Rights, Gender Environment process and decision-making in greater numbers can make a significant difference. Does that mean that only people similar to a group can represent its interests? This may not necessarily be true. In this context it is important to examine what interests women in the public/political sphere are furthering. It could be argued that issues important to women could be reasonably represented as well by male Members of Parliament. But many strongly feel that without a sufficient female presence in the national and other decision making bodies, it seems unlikely that issues which women as a group are more prone to be faced with concerning reproduction or challenging other inequalities within the social and economic sphere would be adequately addressed. While it is considered important to bring women to positions of power, it is equally necessary to sensitize those in power whether men or women about gender. Along with this the importance of women’s economic independence, education and awareness and their improvement in the socio economic sphere can hardly be stressed. The restructuring of gender relations within both the family and society is an equally important step towards freedom, equality and justice. Representation through Reservation Various strategies have been proposed to further the political representation of women in India. From a reservation of 33% seats at various levels including the Parliament, it has also been suggested that political parties reserve 33% of their seats for women in the elections. The Bharatiya Janata Party recently announced such a reservation in its organization. However, it has been questioned whether women constitute an undifferentiated category and whether collective identification and mobilization of women as a ‘disadvantaged’ group in general on the basis of gender is a viable proposition in the politically accepted sense of the term particularly in view of caste and class differences among them. Mere presence of women in Parliament even if greater in numbers will not mean much unless they are truly representative of women’s concerns covering all categories. In the ongoing debate about reservation of seats for women in the Parliament it has been pointed out that an undifferentiated reservation for women will reinforce the existing inequalities in women’s access to positions of power. It is the elite and politicized families from which there is a smooth entry for women in politics. Women playing supportive roles to males in the family and emerging from their shadows have also found easy entry. Another trend has been the entry of widows of prominent political figures into politics and positions of power. On the whole the important factors for women’s active presence in politics in India as trends show are in general: family background, political influence, family financial position, existing involvement in politics, literacy, local conditions, campaign strategy, influence within the party and personality traits etc. rather than only competence, capability and merit. The combined result of all these factors is that very few women manage to get or are given party tickets. If the factors of University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 12 Human Rights, Gender Environment economic dependence, prohibitive election costs, threats of violence and character assassination are added, even fewer can get seats in the legislature. In any case, it is argued by those in favour of reservation, there is no doubt that democracy and representation will be strengthened with compulsorily more presence of women through reservation. This is evident from the impact of the implementation of 33% reservation of seats for women in the local bodies (panchayats) in India by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment as a result of which the representation of women in the formal structures of governance at the local level has recorded a steady increase. (Table 13). Women’s presence at the decision making levels will not only enhance the status of women but will also strengthen democratic traditions and make democracy more meaningful in fighting injustice and oppression while at the same time help to bring a different, explicitly female perspective to the political arena. Unless women are brought into the decision-making levels directly, important women issues will never be tackled with the seriousness they require. In addition, democracy demands the regard for not only the interests of those who support in elections but also the aspirations of those who expect to be represented. The recognition of the right of every citizen to participate in public decisions is a basic element of democracy, which, to be effective, requires that the needs and interests of all members of the society are respected and represented. Even if others might claim to represent them, there is no guarantee of justice and equity if one half of the population is consistently excluded from taking part fully in decision making as is the case with women in Indian politics and governance. There is therefore need for more inclusive processes of achieving representation. The value of inclusion of women in governance and decision-making institutions lies in the diversity of experiences women will bring to governance whether there are ‘female’ concerns or not. Comprehensive representation would be obtained if women constituting half the population find a proportionate number of seats in government. Conclusion It is important to stress that like the equal right to vote, participation and representation in legislative bodies may not in itself be enough for women’s political empowerment or to remedy the problems of discrimination faced by women in Indian society. Equality with equity is a goal which may not easily be achieved only by high representation of women in legislatures and other public bodies but has to be buttressed by other supportive measures. Even so, the demand for reservation of seats for women in political bodies to rectify the imbalance has gained strength in India in the light of persisting gender gaps in the various spheres of development. In the absence of any serious political selfcorrection so far, the demand for reservation of seats in legislatures and party structures has been stressed in India aiming at such an equitable representation. University of Delhi BA Programme II Foundation Course 13 Human Rights, Gender Environment While the steady increase in the electoral participation and mobilization of women in India has increased the visibility of women in the legislative politics this has not happened in the exercise of executive and judicial power due to their lack of presence in the decision making structures. From this perspective, the important question is what are the benefits of democracy for women.. Electoral participation and quotas through affirmative action alone are not enough to result in gender equity.

Formal Ethics Training in Organisations-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Is Formal Ethics Training in Organisations Merely Cosmetic? Discuss. Answer: Introduction Ethics Training is imparted to the employees in order to enable them to recognize and deal with the ethical issues that develop their moral intuition. These moral intuition guide their decision making and actions in everyday life. It also aims to enable all the members of the organization to understand and apply the same code of ethics in their job related decision and are thus in sync with one another. Thus, this training enables all the employees of the organization keep in check the moral legitimacy of their work related decisions, while applying moral principles in decision making. It also promotes and enhances the alignment of the employees ethics with that of the organization. Further, this enables to foster and maintain the balance between various stakeholders of the organization. Thus, ethic training doesnt only mean training employees about the morals and ethical values of the organization, but also enabling each member of the corporate to understand and contribute to the mi ssion achievement of the company through orientation of their individual behavior and choices (Dinc and Nurovic 2016). Challenges of Ethics Training Though organizations often find it challenging to motivate their employees to take ethic training seriously, it is important to train the employees and has a big impact on business. It is argued that the employees might be competing in the organization responsibly, ethics training is essential for them as it effects organizations reputation and daily morals. Leaving ethical decision to chance can prove to be very harmful for the company. One ill conceived decision and action by an employee can affect the entire organization and its reputation in the market. Ethics training is usually less skill based and more based on setting the correct behavior pattern for the employees. Thus, it helps in assessing ones behavior while he or she is in a dilemma or in a particular situation of varying complexity so that the employee can make the right decision (Knowles 2015). However, it is argued that the employees know the answer to majority of work related dilemmas in abstract setting; however when an important decision has to be made which might affect the company in big way, they can feel pressurized. In such situations, ethic training enables the employee to take right decision based on the instilled values and positive behavior. Ethic training does not focus on helping employee solve problem in a particular way or set out the rules that shall guide his actions, but enables him to improve his thinking and decision making abilities. Hence, it aims to help employees to determine the ethical choice and implement in the most convoluted situation (Bishop 2013). Although there are texts available that lists down the ethical expectation from an employee, those texts may seem to be abstract and confusing. Those ethic acts are written in legal form and can be interpreted by lawyers rather than by employees. Further, mere reading the text may not be effective in converting the unethical employee into ethical one. Had that been the case, the moral lessons in kindergarten would have been enough to keep every individual stuck to their values and work ethically. Effective ethic training supports those texts and makes them more comprehendible for the employees. Training helps employees implement the standards of ethic act of the company in their day to day work life. Through case studies and situations, effective ethic training enables employees realize and live the goal of ethic training, which aims at improving the ethical working in the organization (Floyd et al. 2013). Beliefs of Employee regarding Ethics Training It is debated that mere knowledge of ethics is also useless unless employees believe that they are really required to implement those standards. The workplace pressure can often lead the employee to get confused about certain ethic rule set by the company in their rule book. The rules usually tell the employees what shall be done in a challenging situation. However, in a particular situation, employee may undertake questionable practice, merely out of habit rather than intentionally. However, employees may also get confused according to their respective pre conceived notion about the particular rule and thus implement it as per individual judgment. Thus, in such scenario, ethic training makes each rule clear to the employee on the same grounds and thus each employees workplace ethics is in sync with anothers. Effective training reinforces the message that the organization does not approve of any unethical practices on part of any employee and violation would result in action against them. This fear shall help employees stick to the rules of the company and adhere from unethical practices (Fornoff 2017). Importance of Ethics Training It is argued that ethics training is thus important to create and maintain the ethical culture in the organization. This also brings the ethical and unethical employees on the same platform and reinstates the belief of ethical employees in their morals and ethical practices. In case of violation of the ethics, the ethical ones get more power to report what is happening in the organization and help in taking care of the problem before it becomes too big to handle (Leroy, Palanski and Simons 2012). However, it is argued that ethical lapses in the organization tend to snowball. When employees see other employees breaking the rules without facing any repercussions, they tend to believe its okay to do so and thus follow the suit. Or the honest and ethical ones might just leave the company and the company would lose its important employee. Thus, such work culture where misconduct is tolerated, the employee turnover would be higher, the productivity would be lower and thus the companys reputation and profitability would diminish. Alternatively, organizations that build ethical work culture are more successful and have more positively motivated and productive employees (Michaelson et al. 2013). Benefits of Ethics Training Human Resource team of the company is in position to build an ethical workplace environment as they are directly involved in hiring and evaluating the employees. They can train employees and influence their behavior in organization at various levels. Managers also play important role in making sure that employees embraces companys values and ethics. It is argued that in companies where managers and top level employees do not enforce ethical behavior, employees fail to trust and respect the managers. According to the National Business Ethics Survey, senior managers are more likely to break the rules than the lower level of management. Hence, it becomes essential to train managers as well about the ethics and values pursued by the company (Fornoff 2017). After the hiring and training for employees is done, ongoing ethic training is essential to maintain high level of ethical awareness amongst the employees to overcome the situations faced by them on the job. This argument is supported by The National Business Ethics Survey findings that the companies providing ethics trainings have increased from 74 percent to 81 percent from 2011 to 2013. Other indicators of strong ethic training include the fact that two third of the total companies use ethical behavior as key performance evaluation indicator of the employees. Also companies communicate internally about disciplinary actions that shall be taken up when any wrongdoing occurs. Therefore, it is proved that it is essential for companies to impart ethic training to their employees (Warren, Gaspar and Laufer 2014). Companies also provide online ethic training which is cost effective and easier to track, however live training is easier to memorize and exercise. Different people bring different set of ethics and values in the company based on their background, training bring them all on similar platform. This is a time consuming process and evolves over few sessions of training. Howard Winkler, the project manager for ethics at Southern Co. aims at constantly changing his companys ethic training program. He does so to keep his 25000 employees aware of ethical issues in the organization. He uses various methods such as conducting contests, produce videos and use social media to train his employees. Companies also hire external speakers to conduct training sessions for the employees. Southern Co. had invited the financial officer of the major company who had served five years in federal prison for unethical practice undertaken by him. The officer sent across the message as to how a person who does not intend to set out his career to commit fraud can end up being in prison for the same. How one act of unethical practice can lead to another and at the end of the path can lead one to the prison cell. The company has also kicked off an online video series that shall impart ethic training to the front line managers so that they are equipped with the tool they require to fill in their new role (nal, Warren and Chen 2012). It is argued that there are various signs of a good person getting swept into unethical ethical behavior. These signs shall be constantly looked after to by the managers. Due to conflicting goals of the people at various levels, one might try to corner out the other. Similarly if the employees feel that the task assigned to them cannot be attained by regular course of action, they may feel pressurized to compromise on ethics and undertake unethical practices. The employees may also fear that they might not be paid back fairly for doing the right thing. In such case they may not refrain from undertaking unethical course of action. Another factor is not punishing the people for unethical practices in the organization. This promotes the wrongdoings in the company. Following everyone can lead the good person to follow unethical practices. Also with one unethical decision being accepted and gone unnoticed, the next one becomes easier and it keeps going so on. Continuous training shall hel p employees refraining from falling in this trap and prevent ones in it from falling deeper (Trevino and Nelson 2013). Ethics thus need to be taught regularly so that employees remember it at all the times. Employees shall be free to ask questions relating to ethics in the training sessions and meetings. Managers shall be equally participative in the sessions. Managers are usually the first person to control the actions of the employees. Thus they shall be trained to regulate their behavior as well to control that of their subordinates. Through constant training, managers can keep ethics in the minds of their employees at all the time and help them identify the issue in the organization as having ethical solution than they would have otherwise done. This helps in making better decisions at the right time and implementing appropriate ramification (Meinert 2017). It is argued that ethics training enables the formulation of workplace expectation along with providing thorough knowledge of its legal structure. Strong ethical training programs are well comprehensive and set a good working standard. The weak program on the other hand only sets standards for control and evaluation for performance of the employees. The weaker program has short lived benefits for the company. The employees shall deal with many other stakeholders such as bosses, clients etc which may not support ethical behavior. Thus it is important for companies to continuously improve on the training program and impart updated training modules so that employees can keep up with the changing environment. Every employee shall work ethically in the perfect environment. However, the real environment is very much different from the perfect one. Thus it impacts the behavior of the employees and they make decisions based on the available options. Paying only lip service to the ethics of t he company is likely to lower level of ethical behavior of the employees. The companies thus need to pay more attention to ethical training and lay more emphasis on their implementation to ensure employees practice high level of ethical behavior (Michaelson et al. 2013). Conclusion The studies have found that in the first year of the training, employees retain most of the lessons and refrain from unethical behavior. In second year, they could differentiate lesser between ethical and unethical behavior, however they still maintained positive benefits of the training. Thus training should also be followed up by adaptation of ethical value system inside the organization to ensure long term benefit of the training. It shall enable in adjusting the companys overall environment to contribute to the positive behavior of the employees and sustain them in long run (Verma, Mohapatra and Lwstedt 2014). References Bishop, W., 2013. The Role of Ethics in 21st Century Organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 118(3), pp.635-637. Dinc, M. and Nurovic, E., 2016. The Impact of Ethical Leadership on Employee Attitudes in Manufacturing Companies. Nile Journal of Business and Economics, 2(3), p.3. Floyd, L., Xu, F., Atkins, R. and Caldwell, C., 2013. Ethical Outcomes and Business Ethics: Toward Improving Business Ethics Education. Journal of Business Ethics, 117(4), pp.753-776. Fornoff, C., 2017. Why Ethics Training?. [online] www.illinois.gov. Available at: https://www.illinois.gov/eec/Documents/Whyethics.pdf [Accessed 4 Aug. 2017]. Knowles, T., 2015. Ethics Training. [online] Business Training Courses | Syntrio. Available at: https://www.syntrio.com/corporate-ethics-training-what-does-it-mean-and-how-can-it-help/ [Accessed 4 Aug. 2017]. Leroy, H., Palanski, M. and Simons, T., 2012. Authentic Leadership and Behavioral Integrity as Drivers of Follower Commitment and Performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 107(3), pp.255-264. Meinert, D., 2017. Creating an Ethical Workplace. [online] SHRM. Available at: https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/pages/0414-ethical-workplace-culture.aspx [Accessed 4 Aug. 2017]. Michaelson, C., Pratt, M., Grant, A. and Dunn, C., 2013. Meaningful Work: Connecting Business Ethics and Organization Studies. Journal of Business Ethics, 121(1), pp.77-90. Trevino, L. and Nelson, K., 2013. Managing Business Ethics. 6th ed. USA: John Wiley. nal, A., Warren, D. and Chen, C., 2012. The Normative Foundations of Unethical Supervision in Organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 107(1), pp.5-19. Verma, P., Mohapatra, S. and Lwstedt, J., 2014. Ethics Training in the Indian IT Sector: Formal, Informal or Both?. Journal of Business Ethics, 133(1), pp.73-93. Warren, D., Gaspar, J. and Laufer, W., 2014. Is Formal Ethics Training Merely Cosmetic? A Study of Ethics Training and Ethical Organizational Culture. Business Ethics Quarterly, 24(01), pp.85-117